Game Designer | The Diary: an AR Historical-Inquiry Learning Game | Harvard Graduate School of Education
Jan 2021-May 2021
Team: Kexin Kang and Drake Xiao
DISCUSS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEM
History is taught in U.S. high schools in the wrong way. For many students, history is presented as disconnected names, dates and events to memorize before an exam. The way students are assessed also has a heavy focus on rote memorization of hard facts rather than the deep understanding of why historical events happened, the lessons we can learn from the past, and the practice of historical process. These three aspects of history are not only the reasons why studying history is useful, they are also much more interesting than the rote memorization of who did what and when. As Professor Dede said in class, the student who knows that the discovery of America is due to the advancement in navigation should get a higher grade than the student who only knows when America was discovered. History should not only be taught differently, the way how assessment works also needs an overhaul.
To start, we should recognize the reason why the way history is taught in American K-12 education is different from its treatment in college courses. Our educational system has determined traditionally that younger students should be taught the basic facts and leave the interpretation until they get into college. Our K-12 students “do not get the interpretive game [and] are just learning that claims ... that jut out from any interpretive frame” (Wineburg, 2012). College is the time for “reading multiple approaches to historical narratives and sorting out a proper interpretation, but the lower grades should be about laying a proper base of understanding” (Davenport & Lloyd, 2019). While this mindset does make certain sense in the scaffolding angle, a side effect of this type of pedagogy is that history classes in the K-12 level have a focus on rote memorization of facts and historical dates, making them unmotivating for many students.
WHAT IMPROVEMENT IN ACADEMIC MOTIVATION AND IN LEARNING OUTCOME MIGHT RESULT
Our team advocates the more promising approach of informally teaching students using pieces of evidence (documents, ledgers, letters, parchments, etc.) and artifacts they are able to seek out and collect in a location where the historical event unfolded through an augmented reality (AR) interface and then piece them together on an evidence board to recreate events and debates in history. After players of our game think they have gained a good understanding of the underlying reasons, interests of parties behind said historical events, they can “teach” their understanding of the events to a teachable agent by creating a mind map. By simulating a real world historical process, this approach engages students more actively than reading plain textbooks and memorizing dates and names. In addition, during the process of building mind maps for the teachable agents according to their understanding and seeing the results of the assessments of their teachable agents, students refine their own understanding and are more intrinsically motivated to do so under the protege effect. The concept map students build for the teachable agents can also serve as a way to stealthily assess their performance.
DESCRIPTION OF THE LEARNING EXPERIENCE
With the pandemic, election, and fight for social justice, 2020 really felt tumultuous in the U.S. Many Americans had to deal with the issues of racism in unexpected ways. When former president Trump insisted on using the term “China virus”, we saw that hate speech led to hate violence. According to Stop AAPI Hate, an organization that tracks hate crimes against people of Asian American Pacific Islander heritage, there were more than 2,800 incidents of verbal and physical assaults directed at Asian Americans in 2020 (Chen, 2021). In the information age, we’re living in right now, it is easier than ever for individuals with malicious intent to manipulate the public opinion, and it’s getting increasingly difficult to form one’s own opinion based on verified sources and the historical context of the issue. This is why quality history education that goes beyond a focus on elite white males, exposes and analyzes systemic racism, and tells inclusive, complex stories over time is urgently needed in the U.S. To address the need for a historical learning experience with a social justice focus, we designed The Diary--an immersive history learning experience in which the user would follow the unique personal story of a Chinese railroad worker working in the foreign land of America through the lens of their cell phone camera. Overall, the learning objectives of the learning experience are 1) to learn about the history of Chinese railroad workers and 2) to practice how to think like a historian.
DELINEATION OF THE DESIGN METHODOLOGY
We recorded a video (https://youtu.be/PB9DTbxEIwk) about the design process and methods we used to create the game. In the video, we briefly talked about how we came up with the problem statement and built the core features of the game based on a set of theories of action. The mind map of the project we showed in the video can be found via this link (https://miro.com/app/board/o9J_lNed1Es=/). We further discussed the development process of our prototype, and how we iterated the prototype by reflecting on the feedback we received from pilot testing. The initial prototype of the teachable agent can be found via this link.
Fig. 1: The mind map we created for the project on Miroboard
THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL FRAMEWORK
Game and Motivational Zone of Proximal Development
An important aspect of what makes a learning experience motivating is the idea that the mentor or the design of a learning experience can “help learners begin to see the value in potential learning opportunities that they have not yet come to appreciate on their own”. This is known as the motivational analog of the zone of proximal development concept. Motivationally effective learning experiences enable students to appreciate the value of the material they’re learning, especially its applications in their lives outside of school (Brophy, 1999). This aspect of motivation is reflected in the narrative of our design. In The Diary, the user is asked to help a person who is trying to find out about her own heritage. Throughout this process of thinking as a historian and engaging in the actions of the historical process by investigating sites and collecting evidence, the users get to see the value of the work of historians (helping others) and develop an appreciation of the practice of historical investigation (preserving the forgotten parts of history).
Achievement system
The game uses an achievement system to reward players for accomplishing challenging tasks. Achievements are rewarded for a variety of accomplishments with various difficulties. Some are effort-based such as finding 50% of all evidence within a given location; some are skill based, such as piecing together the story of a certain historical figure. When locked, the unlock condition and current progress of these achievements are shown to the player to serve as a motivator to discover more clues. Other rarer achievements are hidden and can only be unlocked when very specific conditions are met. The tasks associated with these hidden achievements require players to go out of their ways and are usually not expected for the regular players to accomplish. One such example could be finding a secret room within the environment. The achievement system also has a social aspect. The players can view achievements earned by friends, and compare how close they are to achieving those goals themselves.
The achievement system in The Diary promotes motivation in several ways. First, achievements anchor expectations. By having achievements such as “Found 50% of all evidence in a location”, our app anchors a user’s expectations about what is a reasonable score to shoot for. Hearing that a goal as set by an achievement such as “Solved the mystery of the Transcontinental Railroad” is possible to accomplish, it makes users think that they are capable of reaching it. This is called self efficacy -- believing in our own ability to do something makes us more likely to do it. Secondly, the completion of goals leads to increased satisfaction, which in turn leads to increased performance and learning. The Diary’s achievements are designed to serve as stage goals in order to solve the mysteries. If a user reaches a goal and enjoys the boost in self efficacy that it creates, then the user is more likely to continue to pursue the next stage goal. Third, achievements guide the users and provide feedback. An achievement that says “Found the secret room in the visiting center and read the secret letter from the great-grandparent” tells the player that there are secret areas to be found, and how much of The Diary’s possibility space they have explored. The feedback achievements provide tells the user how well he/she is doing the investigation, and it’s crucial to achieve flow. Fourth, viewing other players’ achievements can trigger a social comparison. If a user sees that a friend earned an achievement, he/she is more willing to try to the degree that he/she thinks that the friend and he/she are similar in attributes and skills necessary to do so if the achievement is effort based. If the achievement is about secrets contained in the location, then the user is more likely to engage in social interaction with other users to ask how to unlock those achievements (Hamari, 2015).
Fig. 2: The achievement system
AR Camera
Many studies show learners tend to have a higher satisfaction and motivation with AR learning experiences than other non-AR alternatives (Radu, 2014). AR activities are capable of increasing learning motivation and potentially reducing cognitive load by providing immediate and relevant information to learners without the need to spend time searching for it (Reilly & Dede, 2018). In the Diary, we provide an AR camera that the players can use to scan the evidence and view its information immediately. For example, in this following figure the player can hold up his/her phone and see a painting of The Last Spike. The AR camera will automatically scan the QR code next to the painting and dynamically generate a description for the painting below it. This reduces the player’s extraneous cognitive load by providing immediate relevant information side by side.
Fig. 3: The player can see the description of real world objects through the AR camera side-by-side
The Transformational Play and Stealth Assessment
Sasha A. Barab et al. (2010) advance the educational potential of video games that can be used to create narratively rich worlds where people can play the role of experts who critically engage complex disciplinary content to transfer a virtual world. To leverage the potential, they developed a theory of transformational play that integrates person (with intentionality), content (with legitimacy), and context (with consequentiality) in which each type of positioning motivates and is motivated by the other types. According to the theory, in a transformation play, the player will take on the role of “a protagonist who must employ conceptual understandings to make choices that have the potential to transform a problem-based fictional context and ultimately the player’s understanding of the content as well as of herself as someone who has used academic content to address a socially significant problem” (Barab et al., 2010).
The Diary has the affordance to enable transformation play. The player’s avatar is a veteran historian/investigator who uses a device that allows him/her to see into the past. At the beginning of the game, the player will receive a message from someone named May. The mission of the player also unfolds along as the conversation progresses: impressed by the player’s ability and rich experiences, May requests the player to help her reveal the life story of her great-great-grandfather who used to work as a railroad worker between 1863 and 1869. By being given an identity that has the responsibility and capability to impact the development of the story, players are motivated to act with intentionality in the game.
On the other hand, the legitimacy of the content requires the game to position the understanding and application of academic concepts as necessary for the player to resolve the dilemmas of the game successfully (Barab et al., 2010). In the Diary, to make progress to the story, the player needs to implement historical inquiry skills and methods that are crucial to history education. The game is designed to follow the structure of the “Think Like a Historian (TLH),” a teaching and learning framework that explains the essential elements of history and helps to build historical literacy in classrooms. The TLH framework identifies two key elements of historical literacy, including the historical process (the disciplinary skills and procedures that historians use to study the past) and the historical categories of inquiry (the conceptual patterns that historicals use to make sense of the past) (Mandell, 2008). Both are necessary for the player to master in order to solve the mystery of the game. For example, the game encourages the player to apply the three steps of the historical process by guiding them to ask questions about the past of Chinese railroad workers, gather sources and evaluate the evidence in those resources, and use the evidence to draw conclusions that answer the question.
The game creates consequentiality of the context to the player by giving them different endings of the story to reach depending on the choice he/she makes along the way. We have designed three different endings for the narrative. We designed these three endings based on the goal of encouraging the player to collect more evidence and draw more logical connections before concluding the investigation, as well as giving positive feedback to the player for the work they have done. These endings differ in the level of impact the investigation makes on the client. The more conclusions (blue post-it notes) the player reports to the client, the more the client would be inspired by the player’s good work. If the player reports 40% of the conclusions before ending the investigation, then the basic ending will happen. In this ending, the client learns of the mistreatment her great-great-grandfather received while working in America as a railroad worker. If the player reports at least 60% of the conclusions, then the client would in addition be motivated to participate in social activism against racism. If the player reports at least 80% of the conclusions, then in addition to participating in activism from the second ending, the client would become inspired by the amazing work the player has done and become a fellow historian herself. By varying the degree of influence the player has on the client, we give a consequentiality to the player’s level of engagement and motivate him/her to act with intentionality.
The design of the game gives us a unique opportunity to stealthily assess the students’ performance, motivation in learning history, and academic tenacity. Stealth assessment provides an innovative way to assess and support knowledge, skills, and other personal attributes within a gaming environment without disrupting the players’ flow (Wang, Shute & Moore, 2015). When the player collects evidence in the historic site, we can assess the player’s tenacity and interest in the activity by measuring the number of pieces of evidence that he/she collects. We can also assess the player’s deep understanding about why events happened the way they did by checking if the player tries to make connections in a trial-and-error fashion. Lastly, we can measure the level of engagement of the player using the type of ending he/she reaches in the end. The game gives immediate feedback to the player based on his/her level of engagement. The inventory system provides feedback on the progress he/she makes in the evidence collection part of the game. If the player makes connections between unrelated pieces of evidence, the teachable agent can say “Those seem unrelated. I wonder what caused ...?” as both feedback and thinking prompt to the player. Finally, the ending provides feedback to the player on how they did. The Diary offers the efficiency of having players both learn valuable competencies and get assessed at the same time. Assessing students in this fashion helps reduce test anxiety and maintain players’ engagement. By using the information we collect as the basis for offering learning support to the student and improving our design, stealth assessment is valuable in supporting the growth of constructs (Wang, Shute & Moore, 2015).
Fig. 4: Introduction to the story through chat messages with the client
The Teachable Agent
Within the narratives of The Diary, the protagonist character embodied by the player -- a veteran historian/investigator -- is approached by someone who asks the player to find out about her family history. Having decided to help her out, the protagonist sets out an investigation on the historical site to collect pieces of evidence and put them on an investigation board. The players are then asked to link relevant pieces of evidence together to come up with conclusions (presented as light blue post-it notes in the wireframe) and “report” them to the client. As the client learns about these events, she would give reactions in a realistic way. If enough conclusions are reported to the client, the player can press the “Conclude” button to enter a conversation with the client during which she will ask the player a series of multiple choice questions. The way evidence factors into this is that not all of the evidence is meant to be found easily, so some of the conclusions will be locked by the time the player chooses to conclude. If that is the case, dialogue options that are meant to reveal some secrets will appear as locked and greyed out and wouldn’t be available to pick. However, the player always has the option to back out of a conclusion session with the client to find more evidence before entering another conclusion session.
The protégé effect is a psychological phenomenon where teaching, pretending to teach, or preparing to teach information to others helps a person learn that information. In The Diary, the user collects pieces of evidence and “teaches” them to a teachable agent (TA) to unlock the mystery associated with her ancestor. Studies done on similar TA based softwares have shown that students who believed that they were teaching their TAs spent more time on learning activities and also learned more than students who believed they were learning for themselves (Chase, 2009).
To explain why the TA in The Diary would motivate students to study more about history and think deeper, we take a look at the social interactions the user can have with the TA. Firstly, the TA in The Diary is a client who asks the user’s avatar, a professional history investigator who has a camera to see through the past. This setting of the narrative is immediately explained to the user as he/she first opens up a new mystery and starts solving it. The client asks the user’s avatar to help her find out about her ancestor’s history, evoking the user’s empathy, and hence become more motivated into engaging in the historical process and find out more about what happened before. Secondly, throughout the user’s engagement with the client, she behaves as a social being by giving out comments on a regular basis as if she is having a conversation with the user. These comments range from general chatter to special remarks as reaction to certain pieces of evidence to encourage the user’s deeper thinking. For example, when the user presents her with a photo with the photo of the Golden Ceremony while she has the information that the transcontinental railroads were mostly constructed by Chinese workers, she would as the user, “I wonder why there is almost no Chinese railroad worker in the photo of the Golden Spike Ceremony… Maybe you can tell me more about it.” These types of social interactions not only act as prompts for deeper thinking, they also suspend the user’s disbelief and motivate the user to help his/her client in need.
Fig. 5: Teachable agent’s reaction after the player click the Ask button on the evidence board
Collaboration
Because there are lots of pieces of evidence to find in a historical site, players are encouraged to go hunt artifacts with their friends. The Diary facilitates this type of collaboration by allowing players to share evidence with other players on their friend list, making it more likely for players who cooperate with friends to gain access to hidden evidence and conclusions. There will also be achievements that are exclusive to cooperative play as an extrinsic incentive for players to engage in collaboration.
The most prominent perspective in research on learning for the last few decades is the view that motivation is socially influenced (ZImmerman & Schunk, 2007), and motivation emerges through interactions in a social situation (Jarvela & Volet, 2004; Nolen & Ward, 2008). Motivation is a psychological phenomenon and the social context has an impact on individuals’ motivation to engage in learning activities (Jarvela et al., 2010). By engaging in the shared problem space (Roschelle & Teasley, 1995)-- hunting for pieces of evidence in a group, pool together findings, and discuss the best ways to solve mysteries-- in a coordinated way facilitated by the collaboration features of The Diary, users who engage with The Diary in a group would enjoy the motivational benefits from each other, as opposed to competitive and individualistic learning activities (e.g., Webb, Nemer, & Ing, 2006). Faced with the challenge of finding as many hidden pieces of evidence as possible together, a group of users are involved in creating a common ground in shared problem solving (e.g., Makitalo, Hakkinen, Jarvela, & Leinonen, 2002).
Fig. 6: Interface of sharing evidence with friends
Self-Efficacy and Growth Mindset
According to Bandura (1986), motivation is based more on what an individual believes than what is objectively true (Bandura, 1986). One motivating factor that the narrative of The Diary offers to the player is self-efficacy. In the story, the player’s avatar is a renowned historian who has already solved numerous cases before. By suspending belief and making the player think that they were the smart and powerful, the player would build self-efficacy, i.e. the belief in one’s own capability to succeed in a particular situation. With this belief in mind, the player will more likely think that they will better help the client as long as they spend enough effort on the investigation - an effort based growth mindset in which the goal is not performance oriented but effort focused.
In addition, the achievement system helps players grow self-efficacy. Note the fact that players can see their friends’ progress and achievements by viewing their profiles. If a player has not achieved a goal but he/she sees that a friend has, then he/she will be more likely to believe the goal is achievable and therefore more likely to be able to accomplish it.
Moreover, self-efficacy is also a social construct. Groups develop a shared belief in the group’s capability to attain certain goals and accomplish tasks (Schunk & Pajares, 2005). The social feature of The Diary helps the group of players grow self-efficacy by facilitating communication and evidence sharing. By being conscious of the fact that group members are able to help each other to accomplish a goal, the group is more likely to believe that they can finish the task as a whole.
Collection of Evidence as a Motivating Factor
One of the main activities that the users would do with our app is collecting evidence. There are several types of evidence, and players can collect them in different ways. For example, one type of evidence players can find in the historic site is paintings and documents being displayed in the visiting center. Players can scan the QR code next to the paintings in order to collect them. While viewing models in the AR camera mode, players can take pictures of people and artifacts of the past to collect them as evidence. Players could also have a conversation with the museum staff and collect the testimony as evidence. At the end of the activity, players will have collected many interesting artifacts in their inventory systems. They will have a chance to organize and rearrange their collection on the concept map.
There are several reasons why collecting artifacts in this way can be motivating for players. For some, the activity of collecting is motivating itself. They see collecting is simply the quest and pursuit that is never complete. For some people, the satisfaction comes from “arranging, re-arranging, and classifying” their inventory. Some might be motivated to collect because they want to preserve the past (McKinley, 2007). The evidence collection and the inventory systems of The Diary satisfy all three of these motivational factors by giving players a way to collect artifacts related to the past, organize their inventory and make logical connections among pieces of evidence.
Fig. 7: How the player adds items or photos to the inventory system
DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS ABOUT SIMILAR EXPERIENCES TO DATE
Betty’s Brain
There are a number of similar experiences that also take advantage of the Protege Effect. The Diary’s design was most inspired by Betty’s Brain, a teachable agent software that was designed to model chains of cause and effect relationships in the domain of science. In Betty’s Brain, the students can “teach” the TA by creating a concept map of knowledge nodes then connecting them with causal links. The students can then query the TA, and the TA will respond using the logic network represented by the concept map taught by the student to provide an answer. The TA is designed for students to organize the material they learn in the classroom. The Diary employs a similar design: the students are asked by the app to put together an investigation board and connect relevant pieces of evidence. Similar to Betty’s Brain’s TA, the client in The Diary is also designed to behave as a social being. She can chat with the user as well as asking questions to the user, which can further spark deep thinking. Similar to Betty’s Brain’s TA, the client from The Diary comes with a face, a name and a family history, which help students suspend disbelief enough to treat the TA as a living person.
Although the design of the teachable agent portion of The Diary was based on Betty’s Brain, we did not include some of the features that Betty’s Brain offers. For example, in Betty’s Brain there is a game show feature where the player can take their TA to participate in a game show in which the TA is asked a series of scientific questions, and the participants will be rated based on their TAs’ performance. After the game show, players are expected to iterate on their concept map based on the answers generated by the TA. Betty’s Brain also has a system that asks questions to the TA and the TA will answer them based on the logic built by the player in the concept map. Comparatively, The Diary’s teachable agent does not generate reactions dynamically: the reactions and logical connections are based on a static database of data. We are not sure how much the lack of these features would impact players’ motivation. However, the implementation of such features will mean that we need to overhaul the design of the narrative to something open ended, which might also hinder other motivational factors that are already in place.
EcoMOBILE
The EcoMOBILE was a set of ecosystem science AR experiences for middle-schoolers delivered via mobile broadband devices (MBDs) such as tablets and smartphones (Reilly & Dede, 2018). Similar to the Diary, EcoMOBILE used outdoor AR activities to guide learners to collect and analyze data about the water quality of their local watersheds. According to the study, students who participated in the pilot reported positive shifts in their attitudes about their ability to understand scientific topics and carry out science-related skills, and technology-rich components of the activity earned the highest ratings of motivation (Reilly & Dede, 2018). Furthermore, EcoMOBILE was designed to provide the experience of seeing an ecosystem “through the eyes of an ecologist” by overlaying virtual information on the top of the real-world settings, directing student attention to specific features that might not be visible with the naked eyes (Dede et al., 2019). The AR overlay to the physical world not only maximized the learning gains in a set amount of time, but also minimized the distraction from the cognitive load of having too much to see or observe in the real world (Dede et al., 2019). We believe that the AR camera in the Diary is capable of reducing the player's cognitive load by showing the information of evidence immediately when the player scans it with the camera.
DESIGN ARTIFACTS DEVELOPED
We developed a clickable prototype (https://xd.adobe.com/view/d452b6de-aa78-4cc3-a6d1-8ff044185ced-8101/?fullscreen) with Adobe XD to demonstrate the key features of the game. A video walkthrough (https://youtu.be/qx9v95sTSno) is available to provide details about the rationale of each feature.
OVERALL ASSESSMENT OF THE EXPERIENCE
Based on the user feedback we got, The Diary is more effective in motivating its players to engage in the historical process and learning history than they would in a traditional classroom because of the affordances of augmented reality technology, the process of constructing a concept map and the protege effect offered by the teachable agent part of the app. These three core aspects of the app motivate players to learn about history on their own by making the players feel as if they were helping someone in need and drive them to engage in the process of historical inquiry. It embodies the players in the role of a professional historian and suspends belief enough for the players to think they were in an alternate reality in which they were empowered to be the smart and powerful, which builds self-efficacy in learning history.
The Diary is limited in its customization options. Although we had the capability to change the teachable agent in the first iteration of our design, we eventually decided to scrap it because we wanted the general aesthetics of The Diary to feel somewhat realistic. We also decided to scrap the leveling system from the initial design because there was nothing to unlock. However, we may add some of these systems back for the final product if there are enough mysteries to solve.
REFERENCES
US Department of States Archives, 2001-2009. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/82014.htm
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Barab, S. A., Gresalfi, M., & Ingram-Goble, A. (2010). Transformational Play: Using Games to Position Person, Content, and Context. Educational Researcher, 39(7), 525–536. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X10386593
Brophy, J. (1999). Toward a model of the value aspects of motivation in education: Developing appreciation for particular learning domains and activities. Educational Psychologist, 34, 75-85.
Chase, C. C., Chin, D. B., Oppezzo, M. A., & Schwartz, D. L. (2009). Teachable agents and the protégé effect: Increasing the effort towards learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 18(4), 334-352.
Chen, Shawna. Recent Attacks Spark Renewed Focus On Anti-Asian Violence, 2021. https://www.axios.com/violent-attacks-elderly-asian-americans-f51600d1-544e-4a9c-a451-dda227679eb6.html?utm_source=newsletter&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=newsletter_axioschina&stream=china
Davenport, D., Lloyd, G., 2019. How Not To Teach American History. Defining Ideas: a Hoover Institution Journal. https://www.hoover.org/research/how-not-teach-american-history
Dede, C., Grotzer, T., Kamarainen, A., & Metcalf, S. (2019). Designing immersive authentic simulations that enhance motivation and learning: EcoLearn. In R. Feldman (Ed.), Learning science: Theory, research, practice, pp. 229-259. New York: McGraw Hill.
Stearns, Peter N., 1998. Why Study History?. American Historical Association. https://www.historians.org/about-aha-and-membership/aha-history-and-archives/historical-archives/why-study-history-(1998)
Dunleavy, Matt, Chris Dede, and Rebecca Mitchell. 2009. Affordances and limitations of immersive participatory augmented reality simulations for teaching and learning. Journal of Science Education and Technology 18, no. 1: 7-22.
Hamari, Juho (2015) Do Badges Increase User Activity? A Field Experiment on the Effects of Gamification. Computers in Human Behavior.
Jarvela, Sanna, Volet, Simone and Jarvenoja, Hanna, 2010. Research on Motivation in Collaborative Learning: Moving Beyond the Cognitive-Situative Divide and Combining Individual and Social Process, Educational Psychologist, 45: 1, 15-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00461520903433539
Jarvel ¨ a, S., & Volet, S. (2004). Motivation in real-life, dynamic and inter- ¨ active learning environments: Stretching constructs and methodologies. European Psychologist, 9, 193–197.
Klopfer, E., & Squire, K. 2008. Environmental Detectives—the development of an augmented reality platform for environmental simulations. Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(2), 203-228.
Mandell, N. (2008). Thinking like a Historian: A Framework for Teaching and Learning. OAH Magazine of History, 22(2), 55-63. Retrieved May 3, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25162174
McKinley, Mark B, Ed.D. The Psychology of Collecting, 2007. The National Psychologist.
Nolen, S. B., & Ward, C. J. (2008). Sociocultural and situative research on motivation. In M. Maehr, S. Karabenick, & T. Urdan (Eds.), Social psychological perspective on motivation and achievement. Advances in motivation and achievement (Vol. 15, pp. 428–460). London: Emerald Group.
Radu, I. (2014). Augmented reality in education: A meta-review and cross-media analysis. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 18(6), 1533-1543.
Reilly, J. & Dede, C. (Forthcoming, 2018). Augmented reality in education. In Zhang, A. & Cristol, D. (Eds.), Handbook of Mobile Teaching and Learning (2nd ed.). New York: Springer.
Schunk, D. H., & Pajares, F. (2005). Competence beliefs in academic functioning. In A. J. Elliot & C. Dweck (Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation (pp. 85-104). New York: Guilford Press. (in Library Reserves tab on left-hand menu).
Wang, L., Shute, V.J., & Moore, G.R. (2015). Lessons Learned and Best Practices of Stealth Assessment. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations 7(4):66-87 DOI: 10.4018/IJGCMS.2015100104
Webb, N. M., Nemer, K. M., & Ing, M. (2006). Small-group reflections: Parallels between teacher discourse and student behaviour in peer-directed groups. Journal of the Leaning Sciences, 15(1), 63–119.
Wineburg, S., 2012. Undue Certainty: Where Howard Zinn’s A People’s History Falls Short. American Educator Vol. 36, No. 4, Winter 2012-2013, AFT. https://www.aft.org/sites/default/files/periodicals/Wineburg.pdf
Zimmerman, B., & Schunk, D. (2007). Motivation: an essential dimension of self-regulated learning. In D. Schunk & B. Zimmerman (Eds.), Motivation and self-regulated learning. Theory, research and applications(pp. 1–30). New York: Taylor & Francis.